A Review of Migration in Cambodian

I-Introduction

Overview of the research

Population migration in Cambodia is not a new phenomenon but, at the start of 21st century, it has emerged towards the top policy agenda for the government. The mind of development planners and pelicans are being taxed by asylum seekers, number of undocumented migrants, the trafficking of people, particularly of women and children, and the rapid growth of population without access to basic services. Underlying this movement is a search for better life. Migration can help to achieve this by associating people more closely with available employment and services.

Many researches related the migration in Cambodia has been done, but the many remaining issues such as the clustering of migration in both wealthier and poorer groups, was not covered yet. The migrants are not always the poorer group. However, the poorest may be participating in the migration movement much more than the wealthier groups. Moreover, it is equally clear that exploitation of migrant exists and one of the key challenges which the government need to prevent that.

Many concerns that surround migration, such as loss of jobs, lower wages, increased welfare costs and the belief that migration is spiraling out of control, are not only unfounded by contrary to evidence (IOM, 2005).

The general purpose of the research seek to identify the specific issues regarding the migration movement in Cambodia both internal and cross-borders migration.  The specific purposes are as follows:

- To gain background of information and review some basic facts regarding the migration in Cambodia.

-  To identify the gaps and problems which the previous research did not address

-  To establish the research priorities regarding the migration

-  To propose the potential research topics to should be conducted in the near future

Data collection method

This is a secondary data review. The data collection in this research was conducted primarily through the past researches, publication, and reports issued by researchers and related organizations. In addition, discussion with the some key persons who responsible for the migration issues in related organizations is used as data collection method. More specifically some source of information included the following:

- The Ministry of Planning (MP), National Institute of Statistic (NIS)

- The International Organization for Migration (IOM)

- The International Labor Organization (ILO)

- The Cambodian Development Research Institute (CDRI)

- Department For International Development (DFDI)

 Limitations and constraints

This is an exploratory type of research which seeks to determine the problems related to Cambodian migration. The research is focused the analysis on both internal and cross-border migration in Cambodia. Due to the time constraint and availability of the data, the analysis of internal migration is much more attention. The immigration is not taken in consideration under this review.

Rationale of the paper

The aim of this is to examine the exam the current situation of migration in Cambodia and to identify the gap in order to address the potential theme or topic to be searched, especially to identify the precise issues in order for formulating policies recommendation to improving the current situation of migration.

II.    Review of the past researches results

There are many studies have been conducted to investigation of internal migration patterns, especially the 1998 Cambodian census data, this study examines these patterns by ages, sex, education, migration year, occupation and employment status. However, there are many remaining issues needed to analysis. This section discusses and reviews some literature of the past researches.

Overview of migration in Cambodia

The migrant population in Cambodia is high at 31.5 percent, which has important implications for protected areas. While there is growing migration from rural to urban areas, rural to rural migration remains the most common at around 70 percent of the total population. According to the 1998 Census, male migrants were slightly more likely to have moved to a rural area and female migrants to urban areas. Several reasons for migration are raised in the census including: family ties, the turbulent recent history of Cambodia, and natural resource insecurity. Migrants in rural areas were nearly three times as likely as those in urban areas to have moved for marriage, because of natural calamities and insecurity, or because of repatriation or return after displacement. As the flow of repatriation diminishes, the downward trend of migration from rural to rural areas may continue, although repatriation may be offset by the current waves of demobilization of military personnel.

Generally, rural to rural migration occurs as a result of landlessness and desire of the poor for access to natural resources. As populations grow and available land and natural resources in the lowland agricultural areas become scarce, people have begun to relocate along the coastal regions and into Cambodia’s highland areas, which contain relatively high natural resource wealth. Accordingly, regions surrounding protected areas have become target areas for migrants.

The rural resettlement of populations rendered landless due to the civil war and ensuing instability, as well as the demobilization of Cambodian soldiers, exacerbates the pressures on protected areas. For example, one government resettlement scheme re-located demobilised members of the country’s armed forces within a protected area in western Cambodia. In 1998, following the agreement on demobilizing the Khmer Rouge and other militia, more than 1000 military families were resettled from Thailand directly into the Sam Laut Multiple Use Area. Extensive forest clearing and cultivation on the rich soils of the area has followed and the community has become relatively prosperous. This resettlement plan was implemented without prior assessment of the environmental affects on the protected area or surrounding landscape and without a protected area management plan in place.

Different types of internal migration

There are many forms of internal migration in Cambodia. It can be in the form urban to urban, from urban to rural, from rural to rural and from rural to urban. According to the 2004 census conducted by NIS, rural to rural migration represents 68.90% which is the most important figures among other forms of internal migration. While rural to urban represent only 13.90%. Linkages between rural to rural and rural to urban areas were such strength and significance that development planners must take cognizance of them.

Table 2.1: Percentage of different form of migration in Cambodia, 2004

Source: Cambodian Inter-Censal Population Survey 2004, General Report, NIS

Causes of migration

Migration, the movement of people from one geographical area to another, has a long history and can occur for a variety of reasons. In early times, internal migration in Cambodia was common within countries to satisfy the consumption needs. Based on the survey conducted by Ministry of Planning (1998) there are varieties causes of migration such as to seek for employment, transfer of work place and education facilities, infrastructure facilities. Moreover there are also other reasons to move such as the movement of family, marriage, natural calamities, insecurity, repatriation and return after displacement.

The following table shows percentage distribution of migrants by reasons for migration. Among the different causes of migration, family moved represents high percentage.

           Table 2.2: Percentage distribution of migrants by reasons for migration

Source: Cambodian Inter-Censal Population Survey 2004, General Report, NIS

Recent migration in Cambodia is also result of different levels of affluence among provinces and cities. However, the causes for migration are, generally, the disparities in development between provinces or other locations in the country. Numerically, the most important flows are towards the most developed provinces or city such as Phnom Penh, Kampon Cham, Kandal, Siem Reap, Battambang and Banteach Mean Chey.

The survey did not identify whether the majority of these migrants are from the low-income families or the rich-income families and how they affect the local or national economy. Moreover the survey also did not mention the changes the migrant lifestyle after the migration.   

The movement of migration

Population movement in Cambodia had greatly increased in scale and complexity and in the range of gender, socio-economic and cultural groups that had moved during the last decades. Population mobility had become an option to improve the life chances and opportunities of much wider group of people in the country. That had greatly increased the potential for significant population redistribution to occur within countries, and had major social and economic implications.

By far the most numerous are the movements within the country which are dominated by rural-to-rural migrations to the principal centres in Cambodia. Complex patterns of circulation exist, sometimes seasonal, sometimes longer term, between rural and urban sectors and among the urban centres themselves.

Migration and cross-sectoral analysis

According to the survey conduction by Ministry of Planning (1998), Cambodian migrants work in many different industries such as agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing, mining, manufacturing, electricity, gas, water supply, construction, wholesale/retail trade, repair of motor vehicles, personal household, hotels, restaurant, transport, storage, communication, financial intermediation, real estate, renting, public administration, social security, education, health and so on.

The employment status of migrants is somewhat different from sectors to sectors. The wage difference between agricultural work and unskilled work in Phnom Penh is significant. The workers earns about 4,000 Riels per day. While the prevailing wage rate for unskilled/semi-skilled workers in the city can earn for 6,000 Riels to 10,000 Riels (Pon and Acharya, 2001). For the garment factories, the minimum wages is $45 per month for the regular work. There will be an overtime pay if the worker work an extra hours. Most of the workers can earn from $60 to $75 per month.

Migration, urbanization and poverty

The 1996 Demographic Survey of Cambodia had estimated the urban population to be 14.4%  (NISCambodia. The capital, Phnom Penh, with a population of 999,804 in 1998, is 57% urban. However, the concepts and definitions of urban and rural areas are based on administrative criteria (NIS 2002). In a policy discussion paper, the National Institute of Statistics proposes to apply a consistent set of criteria based on the density of population, proportion of male employment in agriculture and population size to define urban and rural areas. If this definition were adopted, then the proportion of urban population in Cambodia would be 17%.  Further, there would be several urban agglomerations among which the capital Phnom Penh and parts of municipalities in contiguous provinces would form an agglomeration of one million plus persons (NIS 2002). These have implications for urban planning and management including solid waste disposal, sewerage, transportation, water supply and sanitation. 1996:8), implying an increase of more than one percentage point in the proportion of urban population in the last two years of the census. There are no mega cities in

Migration occupies a special position in Cambodia’s demographic history because of the forced movement of large populations during the Khmer Rouge period of 1975-1979 and the return migration following the restoration of normalcy thereafter.  The Cambodian population has experienced much internal and international migration since 1970, most of which has been the result of war, violent confrontation and political instability. Generally, such migration has not been associated with better opportunities for the migrants and their families nor has it been associated with economic development. Rather, this politically and violently induced migration has produced loss of human and social capital at the local level, as well as with psychological trauma, disruption and despair. It has occurred on such a massive scale that traditional community institutions of mutual help in many villages have not been able to cope with it (Hayes 2000: 7-8).

The implications of all the politically- and violently-induced population movement in the recent past for Cambodia’s current development efforts needs to be studied. We know that not all return migrants have returned to the place they previously left but reliable statistics are not yet available.

The migration questions in the census do not provide enough details to probe the complex movements. In general, the 1998 Population Census defined migrants as those whose previous place of residence was other than the village of enumeration (NIS 2000B: 10). Based on this concept, 3.6 million persons in Cambodia were migrants. This volume of migration is equivalent to 31.5% of the total population of Cambodia. The percentage of migrants among males was 32.5% and among females 30.5%. The migration stream has been mostly from rural to rural areas, which accounts for more than two-thirds (64.2%) of all migrants based on place of previous residence at all times. The next biggest migration stream is from rural to urban areas (17.3%), followed by urban to urban (12.3%) and urban to rural (6.2%). In terms of recent migrants, i.e., migrants based on place of residence five years ago, the migration stream consists of a smaller proportion of rural to rural migrants (58.2%), but higher proportions of rural to urban (19.2%), urban to urban (14.5%) and urban to rural (8.1%) migrants. With respect to reasons for migration for persons of both sexes, 35.6% migrated because their “family moved”, 14.0% moved “in search of employment”, 13.4% were “repatriated or returned after displacement” and 12.7% moved because of marriage. About 5.8% moved because of “natural calamities/ insecurity” (NIS 2000B).

From the point of view of development politically- and violently-induced migration (including return migration) in Cambodia during 1970-93 has had the following consequences (Hayes 2000):

-  Politically- and violently-induced migration represents not only a loss of human capital for many villages, but also a loss or disruption of local social institutions and social capital of the sort that normally needs to be mobilized to advance development goals.

-  At the individual level this migration is often associated with extreme psychological trauma, which can affect motivation, ability to trust others, and overall emotional well being.

-  Migrants, and communities with high proportions of migrants, are likely therefore to have special needs if they are to participate fully in the development process, and they may comprise specific vulnerable groups.

Migration cost and benefit

Population migration has a critical role in contributing to poverty reduction. However, migration provides both cost and benefits:

Benefits:

-    Increase individual living condition

-    Increase local and national productivity

-    Improve individual knowledge

-    Improve the job competition

Cost:

-    The issue of the trafficking of women and children and trafficking

-    Abuse associated with the exploitation of migrant labor.

-    Increase crime and terrorism

-    Sexual exploitations

Migration has proved to be difficult to control directly, but judicious policy intervention can help maximize benefit and minimize the harmful effect.

The characteristics of the cross-border migrants

International migration in Cambodia has followed two routes: cross-border, largely to neighboring countries, and globally, to as many as countries such as Korea and Malaysia. Cambodian cross-border migration is took place into two important destinations. First is from Cambodia to Thailand through Poit Pet and Khos Kong. Second is from Cambodian to Vietnam.

The majority of cross-border migrants are irregular in the sense that they may have leave country illegally or, if they have leave legally, have chosen to stay on after the expiration of their visas. Others may have breached the terms of their entry through embarking on employment illegally. Virtually all will have required some form of assistance to gain entry to the other country and, having entered, to gain access to the labor force. This assistance may have been through family or friends, through a local contact who, for a small payment, guided them across a river or through a forest and across an unmarked frontier, or through an organized syndicate which brokered the whole migration from origin to destination for a fixed fee. Others may have been forced or willfully deceived into the migration.

Causes of out-migration from Cambodia to other countries such as Thailand, Malaysia or Korea  are various such as parental or family problems, loss of land or small amount, family low income (especially for the poorer), death of family, marital or relationship problem, loss of capital or business failure, illness in family, not enough rice yield or natural disaster, political, motorbike stolen. Moreover there are the main reasons such lack of employment, irregular income and low salaries.

Most of the migrants traveling to Thailand are flow through the unofficial recruiter. The following the main channels such as alone, with friends, cousin, aunt, neighbor, facilitator, group, brother and father.

According the interview conducted by CDRI with internal and cross-border migrant found that average daily earning by internal migrants and cross border migrant to Thailand is different. The cross-border migrant earns the wages more than the internal. The following table shows the average earnings of the cross-border migrant in Thailand compared to internal migrant which work in different sector.

Table 2.3: Daily earnings for internal migrant and cross border migrant to Thailand

Source: Cambodian Development Resources Institute, 2000

III. Potential research topics

Based on the above review of the many previous research result, there are many remaining issues and themes to be researched. The scope of the research must be realistic and priorities must be identified. The suggestion proposed in this paper is the managing or controlling of migration movement in Cambodia, but it attempt to carry out the research and formulate the policies recommendations related to the migration. The followings are the potential research topics are outlined which are the results of the combination from the issues covered above. In the subsection of each topic is needed to be further developed and focused. These are important part of the proposal. In each proposed topic more researched are required and must be carry out immediately.

Under each proposed topic, the research field and nature of what to be researched can be done through:

-  Review the past researches

-  Sampling of respondents

-  In-dept interviewing with migrants and completion of questionnaire

-  Observations of general environment of interviewees in the field

-  Mapping of the areas and industries in which Cambodian migrants reside and work

-  Focus group discussion with local authority, policy makers, migrants, and other stakeholders

 Topic 1: Impact of migration and remittances on rural income in Cambodia

Justification: Cambodian recent rapid economic growth has been accompanied by large increase in the number of people leaving from rural find many types of jobs in urban. Therefore Cambodia continues to grow and urbanize, the flow of labor away from rural raises concerns about whether Cambodian rural economy can meet the rising urban demand. Simultaneously, slow growth in incomes of those left in Cambodia’s villages and rising disparities between urban and rural incomes prompts policies makers to become interested in the impact of rural migration on the welfare of those left behind.

Content: There are many fundamental questions regarding the link between migration and rural development. It will contain the issues address below:

-  What factors motivate migrants to leave?

-  What causes them to remit income back to their rural households? And through which channel?

-  Does participation in migration raise rural income?

- How does participation in migration affect different rural income sources?

The answers to these questions are vital for understanding the role that migration will play in meeting Cambodian migrant needs and income objectives.

Research approach: this topic would be approached largely in the fieldwork limited to the rural households in different villages in Cambodia. The survey could be conducted to collect detailed information on household characteristics and wealth, agricultural production, and non-farm activities. The migrant needs to be identified from the household survey could be either children, men, and women who left their household to work for their families or for themselves. Moreover, the in-dept approach could be conducted through the interviews with local government agency, owner of business which migrant work for, and other people involved in the process with extensive experience from elsewhere.

Topic 2:  Migration and poverty alleviation issues

Justifications: There are many reasons for migrations such as for survival, for work, for improving the living conditions or to seek for the fortune. In general most of migrants are  to seek for improving the quality of living or to escape from poverty. Migration provides both cost and benefits. It is very important tool in the poverty reduction strategy for the country such as Cambodian. But so far migration is less attention by the policies makers or the development planner.

Contents: Research is needed to identify the following contents:

-  identify the different kinds of magnitude of migration,

-  profile the kinds of workers who migrate,

-  identify the type of migration and difficulties experienced by the migrants,

-  identify the potential benefits provided by the migration

-   determine the extent to which migration helps in addressing the problem of poverty.

Research approach: under this topic the following research method are suitable:

-  Sampling of respondents

-  In-dept interviewing with migrants and completion of questionnaire

-  Observations of general environment of interviewees in the field

-  Mapping of the areas and industries in which Cambodian migrants reside and work

-  Focus group discussion with local authority, policy makers, migrants, and other stakeholders

Topic 3: Migration and policies implications

Justification: Undoubtedly, migration, poverty and development are closely interrelated. It is believed that at the early of the 21st century, Cambodian economic growth is very important while the migration will keep growing in number, although at a slower rate. Therefore, appropriate and effective strategies and measures to manage migration and alleviate poverty are unavoidably and urgently required.

Migration is the issue that is likely to be the subject of intense political debate and is likely to have a profound impact on societies and economies throughout Cambodia. Migration needs to be incorporated into the poverty reduction program; by its very incorporation a more integrated policies approach to poverty reduction is possible. Policies need to become less directive and more responsive.

Migrant are people with initiative. It is incumbent upon government to allow such people to create their own livelihoods. Therefore, policies that aim to support migration and reduce the costs involved is very important for migrant, especially policies that can most effective in measure to reduce the exploitation of migrant.

Content: Given the complexity of migration flows, migrant needs and migration impacts, on single policy option to be adopt. There are two possible dimensions to be focused. First the incorporation of migration needs to the poverty programs which means by integrating the government policies approach to the poverty reduction strategy. Secondly, the policies adopt should be less directive but more responsive. It will contain the issues address below:

-  The improvement of knowledge base on migration

-   Assessment of the role of recruitment agencies in migration

-   Scrutinize legal restriction on migration, both internal and cross-border migration.

-  Explore the strengthening of institution that support and monitor the welfare of migrant, especially migrant overseas.

-  Evaluate migrant welfare funds as a potential good practice for the protection of migrant.

-  Political influence on migrations

-  Population distribution policies

Research approach: This study would be conducted mainly as desk study with fieldwork by limiting the numbers of face to face interviews with a numbers of policies makers, donors, migrants and other stakeholder involved in the process. Moreover the extensive experience from elsewhere is advantaged.

Topic 4: Migration and urbanization

Justification: Based on the 1998 census conducted by the Ministry of Planning, the migrant represent 31.5% of the population. Among this nearly three-fifth of the urban population (58.9%) was migrants. Most of the migrants moved from the rural to urban. The main reasons behind these flows are landlessness and searching for jobs especially. Therefore, rural to urban migration is a major factor that underlies the process of urbanization which inevitably occurs as Cambodian economic development progresses. The economic reasons, although other factors, such as for education or health, are also relevant. Changes of administrative boundaries, and the natural increase of urban areas, also contribute to urban population growth.

The many factors and processes involved in growing urbanization and internal migration, examines some of the problems associated with migration flows, and suggest way to deal with them are the critical points. There are common problems related to internal migration, their magnitude and intensity differ.

Urbanization is occurring most rapidly in some provinces and cities. Based on the census in 1998 result conducted by NIS the following city and provinces such as Campong Cham, Siem Reap, Banteay Meanchey, Battambang and Phnom Penh which are the main locations to be focused at the present time or in the near future. 

Table 3.1: The provinces and city with high migrants

Source: NIS, census 1998

Rural-urban social and economic disparities, and lack of job opportunities in the rural areas, have resulted in the increased rural-to-urban migration. Rural to urban migration is occurring within a framework of population economic growth. The agriculture sector is unable to absorb the additional labor supply of growing rural population.

Cambodian mobility, whether between or within the rural and urban sectors, is a phenomenon related to sustainable development. Thus the development planners are faced with problems of growing demands on inadequate urban infrastructure, and the vicious circle of poverty continues to move from rural to urban areas. The urbanization of mass poverty is a serious problems that requires urgent attention.

Content: It will contain the issues address below:

-   Developing a sound and sustainable environment should be the prerequisite of the development programs

-   Identifying response to growing landlessness, unsettled populations looking for settlement, and a rapidly growing labor force in search of livelihood.

-   Determining the potential factors to be urbanized

-  Identifying whether much greater decision-making power should be transferred for central government to regional and municipal bodies.

-  Determine the greater complexity of management, services and infrastructure in urban necessitates greater cooperation between various administrative areas and level.

Research approach: Under this topic the face-to-face approach with development planners and policies makers is very important. In addition, a sample questionnaire survey on migrants, side visit and observation in the location to be urbanized would be conducted as well.  

IV. Conclusions and recommendations

Conclusions

This paper reviews the many general facts of migration both internal and cross border forms by drawing on recent data and studies done in Cambodia. More specifically this study attempts to provide estimates on the magnitude of migration, to profile the workers who migrate, to identify the type of migration and difficulties experienced by the migrants, and to determine the extent to which migration helps in alleviating poverty in the transitional economies of Cambodia. The paper also attempts to reflect upon the extant policies that have implications for migration.

The main reasons of migration are to escape from the poverty and to fill up the extant of the labor market by migrant labor. Most of unskilled migrants move out in search of any job that may either gain for them higher wages or a longer period of work or both.

The movement of migration is rising mainly in the urban areas. This is due to the increasing of industries, hotels, restaurants and new start up company both local and international companies in urban areas. While rural areas faces many problems such as increases of rural unemployment, scanty housing, inadequate water and electricity supply, poor sanitation and other services, and an overall decline in quality of rural life.

Internal migration and cross border migration in Cambodian makes both positive and negative effects. Internal migration in Cambodia can help to develop linkages between difference areas, make rural-urban trade more favorable to urban areas, generate remittances with may improve the distribution of income between rural and urban populations, develop capacity such that returning migrant disseminate new skills and knowledge in their home communities. Internal migration may not lead to balancing of wage levels or the optimal allocation of labor among sectors because of spatial characteristics. Internal migration may amplify rural urban inequalities and these disparities may encourage internal migration and the concentration of population and resources in many main urban.

Migration plays a vital role in the poverty reduction as well but it seems to have less attention by the policy makers and development planners. In the report of the Government’s Poverty Reduction Strategy has mentioned much issues related to the population strategy such as national population policy, child rights and the projection of children, labor right, gender development and so on but the report fail to raise the migration impact on the economy.

There is no realistic policy on internal migration as well as cross border migration. The migrants, the population in migrant destination areas, local employers, trade unions, local government in both sending and receiving areas, and government have conflicting interest in responds to migration.

Recommendations

It would be more realistic to put in place policies that could promote national balanced development, fair distribution of national resources and space, encourage labor intensive industries and activities, and promote rapid capital formation. Therefore a research on policies to be adopted by government to alter the population distribution should be rationalized by the desire to accomplish overall socio-economic development goals.

That is a study on policies that make efficient use of national space and resources by preventing the under utilization of labor, cultivable land, capital for investment, and entrepreneurial capital, ensuring their optimal allocation between different sector of the Cambodian economy, and thereby achieving a satisfactory rate of overall resources growth through migration. Other policies to be focused are to redistribute the population away from primate cities, and reduce the adversities of over-urbanization. Therefore, to achieve the this intention, the following four potential themes should be studied in-deftly:

- Impact of migration and remittances on rural income in Cambodia

- Migration and poverty alleviation issues

- Migration and policies implications

References

-Acharya, S. (2001). “Labour markets in transitional economies of South-East Asia and Thailand: A study of four countries”, in Labour Markets in Transitional Economies of Southeast Asia and Thailand, Development Analysis Network (DAN), (Ottawa, IDRC and Phnom Penh, Cambodia Development Resource Institute).

-Annuska Derks (2005): Khmer Women on the Move: Migration and Urban Experience in Cambodia.

-Chan, S. and S. So (1999). Cambodian Labour Migration to Thailand: A Preliminary Assessment, Working Paper No. 11, (Phnom Penh, Cambodia Development Resource Institute).

-Chan, S., S. Tep and S. Acharya (2001). Land Tenure in Cambodia - A Data Update, Working Paper No. 19, (Phnom Penh, Cambodia Development Resource Institute).

-Hayes Adrin C., 2000, Population and Development Strategies for Cambodia, Ministry of Planning, Phnom Penh, Paper prepared for the Ministry of Planning under UNFPA – funded project.

-International Labor Organization (2004): Research Report on Beer Promotion Girls in Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

-International Labor Organization (2004): Research Report on Direct Sex Workers in Sihanoukville Municipality, Cambodia.

-International Labor Organization (2004): Cross-border Labor Migration and Trafficking Banteay MeanChey Province, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

-International Organization for Migration (2005): Internal Migration and Development: A Global Perspective, No. 19, Switzerland.

-International Organization for Migration (1999): Paths of Exploitation: Studies on the Trafficking of Women and Children between Cambodia, Thailand and Viet Nam.

-Laure Beaufils (2000): Population Matters in Cambodia: A Study on Gender, Reproductive Health and Related Population Concerns in Cambodia, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

-Legal Support for Children and Women (2005): Needs Assessment and Analysis of the Situation of Cambodian Migration Workers in Klong Yai Districk, Trad, Thailand.

-Ministry of Social Affairs, Labor, Vocational Training and Youth Rehabilitation (2004): Nation Workshop on the Implementation of the Memorandum of Understanding between The Royal Government of Cambodia and Thaiand on Cooperation in the Employment of Worker, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

-National Institute of Statistics (NIS) (2004), Cambodian inter-censal population survey 2004, general report, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

-National Institute of Statistics (NIS) (2004), Cambodian inter-censal population survey 2004: Spatial distribution and migratory movement, Report 5, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

-Royal University of Phnom Penh, Department of Sociology: Rural-Urban Migration in Cambodia, Working paper 1, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

-Shane Harrison and Khou Somatheavy (2004): Sending and Receiving Areas and Employment Sectors in Prevention of Trafficking Children and Women in Cambodia, International Labor Organization (ILO), Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

-United Nations (1992), The Fourth Asian and Pacific Population Conference, Bali, Indonesia.